My Conclusion

From my task analysis I have found that I have to design and make either an Pod docking station, phone charging stand, low voltage light or a radio and the chosen product must be styled in eras from the last 100 years. Also found the different design styles in the last 1 00 years which is Art Deco, Art Nouveau, Bauhaus or Arts and Crafts. .From my investigation on the questionnaire result have found that I will design and make an Pod docking station in the style of art deco made of multi products. This is because that what my target user wants.From my investigation on art deco, I found out the happily styling features which are sunburst motifs, chevron patterns, and jumbled shapes, zigzagged and geometrical shapes From my product analysis I have found out the different type of products and the price of them and the length and I have found out and different type of styling of art deco and this has given me an idea on what to create Design Brief am going to make an pod docking station and it's going to be in the style of art deco and its going to be aimed at over 14+ and so that it would be in the museum gift shop. Requirements for the client The Pod docking station should be:It should be eye catching It should be in a design of the last 100 year era Requirements for the user It should be safe so that they don't injure the user Made from mufti-materials It should be soundly constructed It should be in the design style of art deco which consists of geometric shapes, sunburst motifs, chevron patterns , jumbled shapes and etc It should be priced between EYE-EYE Requirements for the designer and the manufacture The Pod docking station should be.

Popular- Process Analysis Essay

Popularity. Everyone, admitting or not, craves the positive attention from their peers and classmates. To be desired by those surrounding oneself and accepted amongst others is an inevitable side effect to the complete high school experience. No one goes to school with a want to be the out casted and sociopathic seeming student who has little to no friends; it could be said practically that teenagers lust for popularity. While some enter their school years with instant desirability, there are ways to make a popular being of oneself.The first step to becoming popular is to lose every ounce of self respect one could possibly maintain; thus creating an appearance of vulnerability which is more appealing to the widely admired crowd. This is because the lack of self respect makes one come across as a more easily persuaded being which is exactly what certain groups would look for in a person; solely because it’s easier to add an attention craving zombie to their clique, as opposed t o someone who might actually stand for what they believe in.To quicken the effect of the first step one could simply give in and choose to agree or be willing to do whatever the desired clan asks or defines as cool. The aforementioned first step on the road to popularity may have but is not limited to these side effects: losing friendships, making regrettable mistakes, backhanded compliments, and loss of self confidence. Second on the journey to social inclination is kissing good grades goodbye!Popular people don’t have time for homework or extracurricular activities, and if one ever expects to reach that level of mass acceptance then grades should be forgotten or seen as extremely low importance. This way there will be plenty of class time to make jokes, a fool of oneself, and text friends. If time is managed wisely one could probably even make fun of their previous best friends and expose their weaknesses or insecurities to the rest of those with a more commonly craved repu tation. Bad grades and hurting old friends is entirely worth the fame though, isn’t it?Lastly, to complete the transformation of popularity, trash the old reputation. Sure, it’s likely to be seen as a total wreck by most at this point, however there are probably a few people with some faith things could go back to their old and innocent ways. It’s best to eliminate that idea from their head. A few ideas on how to do that are: be provocative, publically disrespect parents, show anti-school spirit, and get caught committing some illegal act (stealing and vandalism are always some good ones).This should ensure that everyone knows just how important and deserve to be talked about one has come to be. Never stop there though; once the steps have been completed, one should continue to do crazy stupid things that will make them hallway gossip for weeks to come! In conclusion, everyone just wants to be wanted. It’s known to nearly every kid in a public school syst em, and it’s not uncommon to see ones classmates do ridiculous things for the attention of their peers. Yes, it’s impossible not to feel a need for wanting and social acceptance, it’s only human.However, it is possible to not go overboard on the need for idolization by those surrounding us. Popularity, in all honesty, is a drug more addictive than heroin, and we’re all abusing the use of it. Whether one enters their years in a school system with the support and companionship of many, or as an outcast in a social dry spell, the acceptance and acknowledgement of others can be achieved through other ways that allow not changing oneself to match another’s standard definition of popular.

Constitutionalism vs Absolutism

Constitutionalism vs AbsolutismIn the following paragraphs I’m going to explain what constitutionalism is, and how it differs from absolutism. Constitutionalism is the way a state or country governs it’s people based off of laws set forth to protect the people’s rights and liberties. These laws are called constitutions, for example the Constitution of the United States. There are two types of constitutional governments, republican and monarchy. Within a constitutional republic the sovereign is elected by the people to govern according to the constitutional laws.Constitutional monarchy is almost the same, except a king or queen rules according to the constitutional laws, but is given some political authority. As with constitutional republic a constitutional monarchy’s powers rest in the electorates. The best example of constitutionalism is John Locke’s Second Treatise of Government. He states, â€Å"liberty to follow one’s own will in anythin g that isn’t forbidden by the rule, and not to be subject to the inconstant, uncertain, unknown, arbitrary will of another man. † (John Locke)The difference between constitutionalism and absolutism is that the king or sovereign is believed to be ordained by God. There are no rules or regulations for the sovereign to run his state. This gives him the ultimate power to rule over his subjects as he sees fit. No one can challenge his authority because his word is God’s word, to question the king, would be questioning God, and this would be considered treason. (Mike Cox) The infamous Louis XIV, other wise known as the â€Å"Sun King†, governed by this mentality. He has been heard saying, â€Å"I am the State! You also have Thomas Hobbe’s Leviathan, which goes on to describe how people need an absolute ruler to keep the peace and discourage civil war. To conclude, I have given you a descriptive explanation on constitutionalism, and described how it diffe rs from absolutism. As you see it is a matter of how much power a sovereign has over his people, and how much power the people have over him. http://www. earlymoderntexts. com/pdf/lockseco. pdf http://www. sparknotes. com/philosophy/hobbes/themes. html A History of Western Society Vol II

Discipline a Child Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Discipline a Child - Research Paper Example The aim of any discipline is to set reasonable and realistic expectations. Disciplining a child often aims at protecting the child from harmful behavior and to impart education. It is a fact that children are sensitive and they require freedom to grow and learn. However, they cannot thrive on unlimited freedom as it will just hamper their growth of intelligence. For a child to grow up to be a responsible, conscious, respectable and dependable adults, he/ she should learn the moral, ethics and social norms that are considered acceptable by the society from their parents. Children who are brought up without any discipline tend to be selfish, greedy, dishonest and unfit for social interactions. Most of the undisciplined children often become destructive and aggressive adults. Children should be disciplined right from the start. However, the discipline techniques used by the parents or the guardians should be considered carefully as it can have a great impact on the child. Disciplining a child using abusive language, extreme physical violence or embarrassing the child should not be done as these can lead to negative development on the child. There are several ways for parents to discipline their children. Some of the common ways of disciplining a child are: spanking, yelling, punishing and embarrassing the child. ... Punishing them for their wrong deeds is one of the best ways to discipline them. But, punishment should not be harsh or cruel. In any form of disciplining a child, it is important to have complete control and to draw a line between torture and discipline. Spanking children to discipline them is one of the most debated topics in today’s world. Many people are now equating spanking to corporal punishment. On the other hand, many parents are in favor of spanking their kids to yield desired results on their behavior. There are many researchers who believed that spanking is harmful for the Childs development and many researchers are also in favor of spanking children. According to said Lisa Berlin, who is the lead author and research scientist at the Center for Child and Family Policy at Duke University, spanking is not an effective technique to discipline a child. She explained that spanking infants and toddlers, is not the answer to instill the right behavior in a child as they d o not understand anything about what is right, wrong or even punishment to really benefit from being spanked by their parents. Lisa Berlin and her colleagues’ research confirmed that children who were spanked from early years (as early as 1 year) are more aggressive and they are less likely to perform well as compared to other children who are not spanked. Lisa Berlin also added that previous research had also concluded that children who are spanked by their parents are more likely to be younger, less educated, depressed and stressed in their adult life. Discipline is an important and essential component in children developmental process. However, it should be done with extreme care as children lack the knowledge and understanding of the world around them.

Harlem Riot of 1943 Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Harlem Riot of 1943 - Research Paper Example The culture of the period affected the way in which the events were reported, the tone of the media shadowed by the way in which society viewed the African American place within it. The Harlem riot of 1943 is an event that shows how the media has a great influence on the way in which public opinion is created about events and the people who are involved. The Harlem riot of 1943 occurred after an incident where a policeman had hit an African American woman that he was arresting for charges stemming from a public disturbance. As he was about to hit her again, a young African American soldier by the name of Robert Bandy moved to stop the policeman’s violence. As a result, the soldier was shot in the shoulder, but the rumor was spread that he was killed which sparked the riot. The incident occurred on August 1, 1943 and the riot was finally ended on August 3 after six people were killed with 500 African Americans arrested (Capeci 116: New York Times). In studying riots, the most c ommon format from which to characterize the events is from the precipitating event, such as the shooting of the soldier who was defending the woman. The emotions created by this event created a climate of violent reaction in which the targets of the volatile consequences were representations of authority. Riots are almost always a result of a social injustice that becomes a part of a theater of violence in which the participants are acting out the underlying emotions of that injustice (Monti 42). The conflict was not representative of black-white confrontation as much as it was represented by confrontations with police and with symbols of oppression and authority which included local stores. According to Gold, â€Å"Observers attributed the Harlem riot to the fact that blacks’ opportunities and living conditions showed few signs of improvement, despite the booming wartime economy† (85). Oppression led to an outburst against that oppressive state in order to express the unequal position that was imposed upon those living in neighborhoods where hope was a limited commodity. The dynamics of the social situation was reflected in the resources that were provided by the media as the event was covered. The Kerner Commission, which was the 1968 National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, was given the task of looking at the riots that had occurred during the 20th century and at the multiple causes of difficulties that were segregating Caucasians from African Americans. Using the Harlem riot of 1943 as one example of the problems that were evolving, a report by the commission charged â€Å"the nation’s media with contributing to a culture of ignorance and prejudice that imprisoned African Americans in stereotypes and helped to foster and perpetuate the poverty and discrimination that eventually led to turmoil† (Henry 80). The specific recommendation to thwart this problem was a call to the news media to include black voices so that a mo re equitable balance of information could be heard (Henry 80). The mainstream press covered the events through perspectives that have not held up historically. According to Lubin, â€Å"the mainstream press repeatedly insisted that it was not a race riot, but rather the work of gangs of hoodlums. Some white critics argued that it was the result of racial ‘

The Representatives of African Music Term Paper

The Representatives of African Music - Term Paper Example There Keita joined a music group Koteba and performed alongside the renowned African stars of that time. These included Kunda of Senegal and Mory Kante of Guinea. He quickly progressed and became a lead drummer of Ballet Djoliba when he was just 15.. He was named as the Artistic Director in the year 1979, the first drummer ever to be given a position of artistic director. Mamady’s name soon began to be heard outside West Africa and he was persuaded by a group of percussionists form Belgium to teach and perform in Europe. In 1991, he opened his own institution of percussions in Belgium with the name of Tam Tam Mandingue. He also formed his own performance ensemble titled Sewa Ken which meant ‘â€Å"Without music, there is no joy, without joy, there is no music.† The school got worldwide fame and very soon its branches were opened in many famous cities around the world. Mamady decided to take his native culture and music to more borders and in 2003 he shifted his fo cus from Europe to the United States. Mamady has also been cast in a movie named ‘West Africa’ when was seventeen. He starred in another titled La Vie Platin and also wrote and recorded the soundtrack of the movie. He released an album with the name of â€Å"DjembeKan which means ‘the sound of the djembe’. The video contained four solo performances and was meant to show the power and influence of Djembe on its listeners. Djembe is a special type of goblet-shaped drum that is very famous in the African especially Guinean culture. Mamady devotes his time to his personal life as well and lives with his wife Monette Marino in San Diego where he teaches students in his school. He actively tours around the world each year to promote and preserve the tradition of Djembe. He is really dedicated to the cause of promoting Drum and djembe playing and was the first percussionist to organize a drum, and dance workshop in association with Guinea’s Secretary of Ar ts and culture. The first camp was held in the year 1990 in which students from thirty-five countries participated.  

Contemporary social problems paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Contemporary social problems paper - Essay Example These concerns are real social problems that the nation faces at present. There have been significant changes in the population growth since 1967 and it has been unevenly distributed, since 1970, with growth in the South and West, and loss in the other areas. This will result in many types of social problems. Already there are many problems like increased traffic congestion, proliferation of foreign language TV channels, expansion in the number of professional teams and so on. These are minor issues compared to the more serious issues connected with environment, education system, health care system, political system and others. The racial and ethnic disparities that the US is facing put the nation in great distress. The difference in these areas can turn up as decisive factor in the making up of the modern civility. The life in the nation is conditioned by the racial and ethnic group one belongs to. There is now a substantial gap between the minority and the White which can result in the social unrest as well. The minority that is growing at a fast rate will hold increasing share of the future work, resulting in the social imbalance.

Speech Night Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Speech Night - Research Paper Example Stage 2 Below I have mentioned the important dates regarding the project. Start date: 19/12/2008 End date: 10/04/2008 Critical and non-critical activities Critical activities Non-critical activities Decide on date Program written Guest speakers invited Time for guest speaker to reply Choose prize winners Program printed Prize winners choose their prizes Invitations to guest speakers printed Speeches written Inform parents and send invitations Book hall Decorate hall Dress rehearsal for the evening Music items arranged Musicians practice for event Order flowers Prizes stamped and put in order of Presentation Thank you gift bought for guest speakers Supper arranged Work Breakdown Structure Activity NO. Level 1 Level 2 1. Decide on date 2. Analysis event 3. Gather requirements 4. Decide date 5. Program written 6. Analyze the main satiation 7. Decide main events 8. Write program 9. Program printed 10. Program printed 11. Invitations to guest speakers printed 12. Prepare main list of people 13. Post the Invitation 14. Guest speakers invited 15. Guest speakers invited 16. Time for guest speaker to reply 17. Waiting for the reply 18. Choose prize winners 19. Searching the best person for the category 20. Nomination person for the prize 21. Inform parents and send invitations 22. Prepare winner list 23. Post list to parents 24. Prize winners choose their prizes 25. Informing prize winners 26. Placing different prizes options 27. Speeches written 28. Speeches written 29. Book hall 30. Search for good rate and best quality

Develop a tv show Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Develop a tv show - Essay Example .† If we talk about the demographic profile of the audience, both the sexes, and both the genders, can see this TV show and benefit from it. The education level must be graduation, in order to better understand the theme behind the show. There is no limitation of ethnicity or race, since everybody is invited to take benefit from this show, without giving regard to ethnic or racial differences. The show will be broadcasted in (type the name of your country here), but slowly it will be promoted to other countries, because for us, all children are the same, and the profit of all children belonging to the whole world, is wanted. However, the teachers and parents must be at the income level where they can afford to get their children watch the show through DVDs, or by taking them to cinemas. At present, the area of intended audience’s residence is urban, but it will be carried to suburban and rural levels very soon through the efforts of our team. Johnson, Jessica A. â€Å"Parents and Teachers Need to Team Up to Help Lift Children out of Poverty. The Columbus Dispatch. The Dispatch Printing Company, 2012. Web. 5 Nov 2012.

Principle of Electric Motor Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Principle of Electric Motor - Essay Example If the current carrying conductor is bent in a rectangular loop, then the two opposite sides that are at right angles to the magnetic field will experience force (Hyper Physics, n.d.). The direction of the force on both rectangular loop sides will be opposite to each other and therefore will produce a torque to the loop and the loops will continuously rotate. In practical applications an electric motor have a large number of loops attached to the coil armature and the magnetic field is generally produced by large electromagnets. Mainly two types of electric motors are widely used and there is slight difference between the working principles of DC and AC electric motors. Working of DC and AC electric Motor: In DC electric motor electricity to the armature coil is supplied through a commutator. Commutator reverses the current after every half cycle so that the torque applied to the armature is in one direction only and thus the coil rotates in single direction. In an AC electric motor the AC current is passed through the rotating contacts. These rotating contacts are also called brushes and the main disadvantage of these AC motors is that a part of energy is wasted as heat, which also shorten the life of the electric motor, however in an AC motor the magnetic field is also produced by same AC voltage (Hyper Physics, n.d.).

The Importance of CSR at Nike Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

The Importance of CSR at Nike - Essay Example In recent times, it has been observed that expectations from an increasingly informed society are gradually pushing business to prioritize CSR and embrace initiatives that seek to comply with the expectations (Hollender & Fenichell, 2014: p55). This paper seeks to study Nike’s activities as one of the leading sports equipment and wear manufacturer and distributor, aiming to discover whether Nike complies with CSR objectives. The company has faced negative publicity regarding its labour practices especially, which necessitates the objective investigation of its practices to determine whether Nike’s adverse publicity reflects general practice and philosophy at the company. This paper will seek to investigate Nike’s CSR policy, practices that are consistent with this policy, and challenges to their implementation of CSR. Nike’s labour practices in Asia during the 90s were the subject of heated criticism, which threatened their position as market leaders and necessitated a redefinition of their CSR policy. The company put up a multi-functional team at the executive level to drive CSR compliance as a result, allowing for the refining of their production processes to improve environmental sustainability and cut waste (Detienne & Lewis, 2009: p362). They also turned their attention to the workforce and designed a code of conduct for their suppliers so as to ensure their suppliers adhered to Nike’s values, especially in providing healthy working conditions for their workforce. Nike has embraced CSR and tries to impress the same on all their suppliers and retailer, as well. The company also insists that its employees’ internalize their code of ethics and practice it, while also making the same code a benchmark for its suppliers. Its efforts at waste reduction won them the Gigaton Awar d that is awarded to companies in recognition of their carbon emission reduction efforts.

The Great African Americans Migration 1910 to 1920s Essay Example for Free

The Great African Americans Migration 1910 to 1920s Essay By the turn of the nineteenth century, the number of African Americans living in the living in the United States was approximated at almost nine million. Of the estimated figures, ninety percent of the African Americans lived in the South where they constituted almost a third of the total population of the region. Around a fifth of them were said to live in the urban areas while four out of every five African Americans lived in the rural areas. At this point, they could be said to have been very much a closed population. They had not been significantly affected by either in or out migration but this status was soon to change from around 1910 when they embarked on a South to North (and West) migration, starting with a very slow place but steadily gaining speed as the years advanced 5. During the years of the First World War, the out- migration of African Americans from the South became increasingly apparent. Between 1910 and 1920, more than 800, 000 African Americans living on the South migrated to the north. This pace of outward migration was to slow down but still continue way into the 1930s and 1940s. Thus in a span of just three decades, from the 1910s to the 1930s, an estimated 1. 8 million African Americans living in the south migrated from the region to other areas. However, the South is said to have retained a sizable percentage of its native population of African Americans as almost eight out of ten African Americans still remained southerners by place of residence. All in all, the percentage of African Americans occupying the southern states and the entire region began to shrink steadily. This decline was estimated to be from thirty percent to twenty-four percent within a span of forty years (1910-1940). The individual states which suffered the biggest decline in African American population percentages were Florida, South Carolina, Georgia and Virginia. Those which registered the least number of declines were Mississippi and Alabama 5. Thus the closed African American population became more open with the out migrations towards the North and West. By the 1940s, the South had lost around 1. 5 million of African Americanss inhabiting the region; one of the most significant net migrations ever 5. This movement of African Americanss to the north from the 1910s to around the 1920s and 30s has been referred to as the Great African Americans migration. Most of the African Americans who were looking for a way to improve their life moved to the cities in the Northern states as well as the West. The migration patterns created by these movements were highly complex. Some of the rural southerners did not move to the North but looked for greater opportunities within the Southern region’s agriculture which was tenancy- dominated. Others moved to the urban regions of the South while still others migrated to the Northern states such as New York, Pittsburgh, Chicago and Philadelphia so as to escape the ‘barbarism’ of the southern states. The following section analyzes the factors leading to this great migration of the African Americanss 6. CAUSES OF THE GREAT AFRICAN AMERICANS MIGRATION Social reasons In 1914, approximately 90 percent of African Americans Southerners lived in the states that had been part of the former Confederacy. These states had legalized the Jim Crow statutes which allowed for racial segregation. In the 1890s, the Supreme Court had made a series of rulings which validated these statutes, thereby leading to the ‘separate but equal’ doctrine of 1896 by Plessy v. Ferguson which in effect, legalized segregation in the United States 3. Segregation had existed before though it was not systematically applied until the late part of the nineteenth century and the early part of the twentieth century. What brought about such systematic discrimination was the blur in the line separating the African Americans and the Whites. The Whites were particularly irked by the fact that a certain generation of African Americans who had grown up as free people were demanding respect and competing for the same jobs and public space as the Whites. The increasing African Americans’ independence made the Whites feel that the only way to put African Americans’ â€Å"back in their place† was through maintaining clear racial boundaries, hence the rise of the Jim Crow laws 4. African Americans were obviously on the loosing end from the legalization of these statues. They were treated unfairly and considered inferior to the White race which made them lose their dignity. The segregation was deeply entrenched in public institutions such as schools, restaurants, hotels and even in hospitals. African Americans were not supposed to be seen in areas frequented by Whites and were restricted to the African American dominated areas. They had their own institutions such as schools and hospitals built for them but these did not match in quality to those of the Whites. As a result of this outright and dehumanizing discrimination, many of them left the South in the hope that they would find better treatment in the North 1. Other than being discriminated against and segregated by the White populace, the African Americans also experienced open hostility and violence from the Whites, often times leading to death. There were widespread beatings of African Americans and in some cases, mutilation of various forms such as castrations. African Americans were frequently attacked by White mobs and murder of African Americans became a common occurrence. With time, lynching became the preferred means of killing African Americans and a popular means of racial control. The incidences of lynching became more and more regular mostly as a result of anxieties by the Whites over changes in the political, social as well as economic landscapes. In the 1890s, approximately two African Americans were lynched per week. However, there were some Whites who did not support it though all felt that it was a necessary means of maintaining racial order 4. From 1900 to 1914 alone, more than 1000 African Americans were killed by Whites, thereby necessitating a movement to the relatively safer North 1. Political reasons for migration In 1867, African Americans people were allowed to vote but they did not really get to practice their voting rights as the White southerners devised several methods to prevent them from exercising their rights. For instance, they made it a requirement for anyone wishing to exercise his voting right to pass a test on literacy before he or she could be allowed to vote. This was targeted at disenfranchising the African Americans since many of them were illiterate as they had been given no education at all. The White southerners also introduced a poll tax which meant that those wishing to vote would have to pay money first. This was also another move to disenfranchise the African American southerners since most of them were extremely poor and therefore could not manage to pay a voting fee each time they wanted to vote. Another move taken to bar African Americans from voting was the introduction of the ‘grandfather clause’ into many constitutions of the Southern States. The grandfather clause stated that people who were allowed to vote on or before the first of January 1867, or whose father or grandfather had voting rights were not subject to the literacy test as well as poll tax payment. This clause therefore successfully barred African Americans from voting and the Whites enjoyed the voting privilege by themselves. Generally, Whites had more civil as well as legal rights compared to the African Americans and were accorded more superiority. This led the African Americans to look for other places where they could be heard 1. Economic reasons Before the period of the great African Americans migration, African Americans practiced agricultural production as their means of earning their livelihood. This agriculture was based on tenancy, where the freedmen, having no ownership of land, would rent it and work as tenants; exercising complete control over the produce of the farmlands and the profits subsequently earned. The tenancy of the land was to be renewed every year. The most prevalent form of farming however, was sharecropping. Under this practice, the owners of the land subdivided it into smaller farms of about thirty acres or so which were then allocated to single families. In return, the resident families paid the land owners through a share of the crop, usually half by half. The terms of this agreement depended on a variety of things such as whether the tenant was known or if the owner of the farm provided tools and other farming requirements to the tenant. In this manner, the African Americans returned to the fields and provided labor to the land owners 4. In the 1910s, there was a major agricultural depression due to natural occurrences and the farmers, both African Americans and white, suffered greatly. The cotton fields in particular, were invaded by the boll weevil which devoured the crop in the entire African Americans belt. Another natural phenomenon which devastated the farmlands was flooding in the south. The summer of 1915 saw massive floods which destroyed the crops in the farms and left the African Americans destitute as well as homeless 2. As a result, the prices paid for agricultural products fell and the small farms such as the ones rented to the African Americans yielded negligible profits. The African Americans therefore sank further into poverty and led a very precarious existence 1. The wages paid to the farm laborers reduced significantly and life for the African Americans was once again hard. Ironically, the North at this time, were experiencing significant increases in production and were therefore in dire need of labor. This can be attributed to the First World War which increased demand for goods produced in the North but restricted immigrations into the U. S yet it is the immigrants who provided the biggest share of labor to the Northern cities. The laborers in the North were also increasingly taking part in Union activities as they demanded for an increase in wages as well as better conditions for working. Northern industrialists therefore looked to the South for new labor supply and recruited the displaced African Americans as well as white workers into their industries. African Americans saw this as an opportunity to improve their livelihoods and migrated to the North in search of greener pastures 2. Testimonies of African Americans living in the North Appalled by the living conditions of their people in the South, African Americans living in the North especially those who owned newspapers or operated them started editorial campaigns that were aimed at convincing the African American southerners to move to the North where life would be better for them. Examples of newspapers involved in such campaigns were the Chicago defender as well as the Christian Recorder. These editorial campaigns tended to portray the North as the Biblical ‘Promised Land’ and convinced the African Americans that there they would have better opportunities. Thus due to interplay of the social political and economic reasons for migration as well as urgings from the African Americans living in the North, the African Americans left the South in their droves for real or perceived better opportunities in the North and the West 2. CONCLUSION Some of the African Americans who migrated to the North were able to find better opportunities and improve their livelihood. They were able to secure employment in the Northern industries dealing with various production processes. However, most of the migrants soon found that life in the North was not too different from life in the South. They still faced racial prejudice and were discriminated against by the Whites. Where they were employed, they were paid less than Whites employed in the same positions and most found that they were given jobs that involved manual labor. The public facilities in the North were open to both races but housing remained segregated as Whites remained unwilling to share their space with the African Americans. All in all, the great migration did manage to somewhat improve the living conditions of African Americans 2. REFERENCES 1. â€Å"At Home with Art Industry: 1890-1920: The economic, political and social reasons behind the Great Migration†. Illinois State Museum, 31 Dec 2006 http://www. museum. state. il. us/exhibits/athome/1890/TeachR/south. htm 2. Baskerville, John D. â€Å"The rural to urban African Americans â€Å"Great migration†: A brief history http://ci. coe. uni. edu/facstaff/zeitz/museum/migrate. html (accessed Feb 20, 2009) 3. Great Migration, 1910-1920, Gale Encyclopedia of U. S Economic History 01 Jan 1999 http://www. accessmylibrary. com/coms2/summary_0193-13024_ITM (accessed 20 Feb 2009) 4. Harrell, David Edwin Jr, Gaustad Edwin S. , Boles, John B. , Griffith, Sally Foreman, Miller, Randall M. , Randall B. Woods. Unto a good land: A history of the American people Volume 1: To 1900. Eerdmans Publishing, 2005 5. Harrison, Alferdteen. African Americans Exodus: The Great Migration from the American South. Mississippi: University Press of Mississippi, 1992. 6. Hurt, Douglas. African American Life in the Rural South, 1900-1950. Missouri: University of Missouri Press, 2003

Dichotic Listening Task Analysis

Dichotic Listening Task Analysis Miss Emma Elizabeth Dorothy Meredith What does the dichotic listening task tell us about how we attend to information? Discuss this with reference to early and late selection models of attention. Attention is a selection process and is invaluable to our everyday lives. We use our attention for many things such as crossing the road, watching over our children, or even while multi-tasking (which is an invaluable skill in today’s world). Psychologist William James (890), talked about two modes of attention; Active attention which is indicative of an individual’s goals and expectations and controlled in a top-down way; and passive attention which is controlled in a bottom-up way and is effected by external stimuli (Eysenck, Keane, 2010). The way attention works brings about a host of questions which has generated much research in to this field; questions such as how much information can we take in at once? What happens to the information to which we are not attending? Do distractions from unwanted information cause attention to fail? Other questions are how do we process the information coming through our senses? And when in the process do we filter out that which i s not relevant? (Naish, 2010). This essay will be concerned with where the filter lies in the process and will compare and contrast early and late models of selection, drawing on research in this area which has used dichotic listening tasks to help explain how we attend to information. The dichotic listening task is a method commonly used by researchers in psychology to explore selective attention. Participants are asked to wear headphones, in which they are then presented with multiple sounds representing that of the real world. These different sounds are played in each ear and are easily manipulated (Naish, 2010). Broadbent (1952, 1954) used the dichotic listening task to support the bottleneck theory of attention. This theory proposed that information is selected on the basis of ‘low level’ physical characteristics such as location of sound, pitch and gender of speaker, and only this information is processed which would suggests that this bottleneck in the attentional system is such that only a limited amount of sensory information passes through it. Broadbent argued that this bottleneck occurs early on in the filtering process. To demonstrate this theory, Broadbent used the dichotic listening task in which he used two conditions where the participa nts are asked to listen and repeat different numbers. Pairs of different numbers are played to each ear. They then have to report these numbers back either by confirming the numbers heard in each ear (condition 1) or reporting the numbers in the order they were heard (condition 2). Broadbent’s findings were that generally participants found condition 1 easier than condition 2 and that participants generally couldn’t remember the ignored message in one ear when close attention was paid to the message in the other. However he found that with short messages, participants could access the neglected information a short time after, as it would be stored in the echoic memory. Physical features such as pitch and location were also found to be used by participants to track messages. From this, Broadbent concluded that switching attention back and forth between ears took up more cognitive resource and that the physical features were also used to filter information. He also propo sed that all information is received in parallel and then sorted based on the perceptual characteristics. It is only then that the signal wanted is passed on for processing, anything else is blocked which protects again overloading of the semantic processor (Naish, 2010). Broadbent’s early filter theory has been criticised he argument being that if we haven’t extracted meaning out of the sensory information then how do we know to discard it as not relevant. Theories which contrast Broadbent’s early filter theory shall be looked at next. Attenuation theorists suggest that only the shadowed message in dichotic listening tasks are fully processed, however everything else is not blocked, it is just attenuated. Treisman (1960) discovered that some participants, when shadowing a message, would say a word that had been presented in the unshadowed message. She found that this was usually because the word was plausible in the context of meaning in the shadowed message (Eysenck, Keane, 2010). This led Treisman (1964) to propose the attenuation theory which is that all information is perceptually processed in parallel then sent through for processing semantically. The attended message would be left untouched and then, in contrast to Broadbent, all of the other information would be attenuated and analysed, rather than blocked which explains why the attenuated message will sometimes be attended to (such as in the cocktail party effect where you can be attended to a conversation in one part of the room, hear your name in another part of the room and then switch your attention to that conversation) and also illustrates a flaw within Broadbent’s early Filter theory. Treisman used the dichotic listening task and shadowing to illustrate attenuation. Participants were asked to shadow a story being played in one ear ignoring what was being played in the other ear. She found that participants began to shadow the other ear if the story switched ears, contradicting Broadbent’s theory as they shouldn’t be aware of the story continuing in the other ear. Treisman proposed that this was due to priming where the temporary sensitisation of a word due to the presence of another causes the listener to assume what the next word will be. She also claimed that the location of the bottleneck was likely to be more flexible than Broadbent had suggested (Naish, 2010). Certain words, such as own name, may also be recognised easily in the unattended message. It was demonstrated by Underwood (1977) that the primi ng effect became stronger if there were several linked ideas used to prime rather than a single word. Underwood also concluded that sentences are processed as whole units but only when attended as the priming effect was also much stronger when the story starts in the attended ear and then switches to the unattended ear rather than vice versa (Driver, 2001). It has already been mentioned that Broadbent had found that information could be stored in the echoic memory and it is also true of the iconic memory when it come visual modality. He argued that if we could switch attention rapidly into the appropriate sensory buffer then it would be possible to process unattended information. Broadbent was, however, cynical about this as he believed that it took 500ms to shift attention, but it actually takes 50ms (Tsal, 1983 cited Eysenck, Keane, 2010). This means that shifting attention to that information in the echoic memory can be as efficient as shifting attention to the actual object. Tre isman argues that the reason for this sporadic semantic processing of the unattended information is due to a leaky filter. In contrast, Broadbent argues that it depends on what is called ‘slippage’ by Lachter et.al (2004). That is attention shifted to supposedly unattended information, therefore it is not unattended (Eysenck, Keane, 2010). There are three other studies that showed unconscious awareness of the unattended material. Corteen and Wood (1972) conducted an experiment where participants were conditioned with a mild shock to city names until they showed a Galvanic Skin Response (GSR). They still showed GSR to these words and cities they hadn’t been conditioned in, when they occurred in the non-shadowed message, although consciously they were not aware of them (Naish, 2010). Corteen and Dunn (1974) also conditioned their participants to certain words so that they would exhibit GSR upon hearing them. To demonstrate non-awareness, participants were instructed to make a conscious response when a conditioned word was played. They failed to do this most of the time when the conditioned word was played in the unattended ear and exhibited GSR. This suggests that some processing for meaning must take place and contradicts Broadbent’s early filter theory (Driver, 2001). Von Wright, Anderson and Stenman (197 5) suggested that meaning can be processed without awareness. They established that a GSR was caused by related words, even synonyms, for the conditioned word by conducting a dichotic listening task where the participants were presented with two lists of words auditorially and asked to shadow one list and ignore the other. The findings were that this indeed happened and a GSR effect occurred when the words were in the non-shadowed list or were very similar sounding words (Eysenck, Keane, 2010). As already mentioned, attenuation theory helps to explain the cocktail party effect and also Corteen and Dunn’s finding. It confirms that unattended information might be available for identification not meaning. There is also less perceptual information to be identified with special words such as own name. Attenuation theory also explains why participants will follow a message from one ear to the other as both messages are being processed however priming makes related words in attenuated messages easier to identify at switching point (Driver, 2001). It may also be possible to explain auditory attention (how we deduce distinct â€Å"sound objects† to attend to, such as one person’s voice among many) by extending visual attention theories that explain how we deduce and attend to objects in our spotlight of attention. This suggests the same neural mechanisms may lie beneath both types of perception (Shinn-Cunningham, 2008). It is proposed by late selection theorists that all information is processed. It’s only the pertinent material that is made available Deutsch and Deutsch (1963) suggested that all messages are processed both perceptually and semantically, with the most important or relevant stimulus deciding the response. This puts the bottleneck much closer to the end of the processing system than both Broadbent’s and Treisman’s theories (Eysenck, Keane, 2010). Another theory suggested by Norman (1968) was that all information must be processed to the point where meaning is designated from memory (Naish, 2010). However, late selection theories were later falsified by developments in neuroscience. Neurophysiological studies took place which provided evidence against the theories of Deutsch and Deutsch. Coch, Sanders and Neville (2005), using the dichotic listening task, asked their participants to attend to one of two auditory messages. The task for the participants was to spot p robe targets which were presented on both the attended and non-attended messages. Event-Related Potentials (ERP) were recorded from each participant. It was found that ERPs appeared 100ms after the probe was presented and was greater when the probe was presented on the attended message. This suggests that there was more assessing of attended probes rather than unattended probes. However, if processing happened in the way Deutsch and Deutsch theorise, then there wouldn’t be any difference in the ERPs recorded (Eysenck, Keane, 2010). Each of the theories uses the dichotic listening task to provide evidence to support their theory. We know that attention is a limited resource and that we can’t focus on everything within our environment. The three major theories do give us an insight in to this. Broadbent’s early selection theory argues that the filter comes before the information is given meaning, but if this was the case then we wouldn’t be able to identify our own name when spoken in the unattended ear. Deutsch and Deutsch went on to argue that the filter happens after the information has been given meaning , so you register and assign everything a meaning then the filter decides what to pass on to conscious awareness. However, as attention is limited, this seems like a waste of resource to assign meaning to information that you will never need. So, Treismans attenuation theory fits nicely in between Broadbent’s early filter and Deutsch and Deutsch late selection filter and argues tha t the information into the unattended ear weakens but is not eliminated, that some of it will get through to the perceptual processes and be given meaning. The input from the unattended ear will still be given meaning but not as high priority as that in the attended ear. If, at this point, the unattended information is important (like hearing your names across a crowded room) then attention can be switched and you attenuate the previously attended to ear. The jury is still out on which of these theories is the ultimate when it comes to helping in our understanding of selective attention, however, each if the theories has been pivotal in how we view selective attention and this is important because attention is crucial to any other cognitive function that we perform. Word count: 2046 References Driver, J. (2001). ‘A selective review of selective attention research from the past century’,British Journal of Psychology,vol. 92, pp. 53–78. Edgar, G. (2007). ‘Perception and attention’. In D. Miell, A. Phoenix, K. Thomas (Eds), Mapping Psychology (2nd ed., pp. 3-50). Milton Keynes: The Open University. Eysenck, M. Keane, M. (2010). ‘Visual perception and attention’. In Cognitive psychology: a students handbook. (6th ed. Pp 153 – 201) Hove, Eng. New York: Psychology Press. Naish. P., (2010). ‘Attention’. In Kaye, H. (Eds).Cognitive psychology (pp 29 – 62). Milton Keynes: The Open University Shinn-Cunningham, B.G. (2008). ‘Object-based auditory and visual attention’,Trends in Cognitive Sciences,vol. 12, pp. 182–6.

Rotating Wall Vessel Bioreactor

Rotating Wall Vessel Bioreactor Abstract Recently there are significant amount of research work undergoing about tissue engineering and bioreactor designing. Therefore, there are so may research paper published around the world. It may use embryonic stem cell, mesenchymal stem cell, tissue graft or other animal spaces tissues or cell for development of human and animal medicine treatment. In that case there should be some ethics and laws to control the usage of the tissue or cell in the medical treatment. Some government organizations and private sector by independently or by joining do some research work about the tissue engineering and bioreactor designing. The cardiovascular system is the major disease problem in the human and animal medicine treatment. In recent decade there are cell and tissue engineering and the bioreactor designing involving treating the cardiovascular disease condition. Researchers may try to develop heart valve, wall and blood vessel etc. Hole in the heart is complex congenital heart diseases, in n ew born babies and leading causes of mortality. The treatment of this kind of the cardiovascular disease only performed surgery correction, the very painful after the surgery at tolerate by baby. When correcting the hole, that must have closed properly otherwise it lead to another problem to the young one, but measurement of the diameter of the hole is very difficult and correction also very difficult. In the recent decade there is stem cell therapy and the tissue engineering has rapidly developed. By using stem cell and tissue culture there are so many researches and development of the treatment about cardiovascular system. Myocardial tissue engineering developed the heart tissue by using the stem cells in three-dimensional matrices of biodegradable polymers scaffold is the innovation of the myocardial constructs and cardiovascular treatment. Introduction The heart is the most important organs in the human body. It transports blood to the organs, tissues, and cells of the body. Blood delivers oxygen and nutrients to every cell and removes the carbon dioxide and waste products excreted by those cells. A Holes in the Heart is an opening in the septum between atria or ventricles of heart, this is congenital condition. 8-10/1000 live born babies has congenital defects in the heart. This condition occurred during the babys heart does not develop inside the womb; no specific cause for this condition, but some increase risk of being born. If mother had German measles or toxoplasmosis during pregnancy, or if she has diabetes, or if someone else in her family was born with a heart complaint. A hole in the heart may be noticed in the first few months of life or even before the baby is born, sometimes a hole is not found until a person is much older. This often happens when the hole is between the upper chambers of heart. It may notice person a re feeling a bit short of breath and dont know why. But sometimes there are no complaints at all. Because of the hole, the flow of blood through the heart is abnormal. This makes noises in the heart, so a doctor can find the hole by listening to the heart with a stethoscope. If the doctor hears a murmur, this tells the doctor there could be a hole. If the doctor thinks there is a hole, person will have an echocardiogram ultrasound test of heart. Sometimes the hole isnt found until a person is much older when they notice they are feeling tired and breathless and cant find a reason for it. Some holes are so small that they cause no problem and are left alone. Some holes in small babies may close by themselves: if the cardiologist thinks this is likely, he will not close it immediately, but wait for some time to see if it has closed by itself, by repeating an echo. Other holes must be closed, either because they are already a problem, or because they will cause a problem in the future .   There are three different types: Atrial Septal Defect (ASD): this is a hole in the wall between the atria (interatrial septum). This causes more blood to flow to the lungs and may not have any symptoms; the excess flow can damage the lungs. If the hole is small, and doesnt affect the function of heart, theres no need to fix it. Ventricular Septal Defect (VSD): this is a hole in the interventricular septum or wall between two lower chambers (RV and LV). If its large, can change the mechanics in heart. This makes the heart work harder than it should and can enlarge it. If the hole is small, and doesnt affect the function of heart, theres no need to fix it. Atrioventricular Septal Defect: this is a large hole in the middle of heart between the atria and ventricles. Some people with this condition only have one valve between the atria and ventricles instead of two. This defect can also damage the lungs by allowing too much blood to flow to the lungs. Although this condition is uncommon, t can be found in babies born with Downs syndrome. VSDs are the commonest lesion about 25-30% of all congenital heart defects whereas ASD are about 5-8% of them. Another point to remember is that all of us are born with small ASD. However, VSD is never found in normal heart. The only treatment available  was surgical closure. Though the ultimate outcome was good, these children had to inevitably suffer the pain, scar and long hospital stay. There are two ways to do this. The first way is via an operation called catheterisation. This is when a cardiologist puts a tube into leg that goes up towards heart.   Then put a device through that tube so that it fits into the hole. When its in the right place, the device opens like a little umbrella, and blocks the hole. The device stays inside forever. This is not possible, because of the size, shape or position of the hole. In these more complicated situations, a surgeon will perform an operation where he puts a patch over the hole directly. If holes have between the two pump chambers of the heart that stay open, will need antibiotic treatment at certain times. This might be before having other operations or serious treatment at the dentist.  Most patients who have ASD/VSD corrections go on to lead perfectly normal lives. Person will be followed-up for a short period, but if everythings OK after a year, wont need to worry about it ever again. It also doesnt increase the chances of having any other heart-related issues in the future but should take regular exercise and aim for a healthy diet. After correction of the hole in the heart there are low risk for structural degeneration, thrombo-embolism and endocarditis and growth potential for paediatric patient. From 1970s onwards, a group of cardiologists started thinking differently. They experimented on animals by creating holes in their hearts and then tried closing them without surgery. Gradually they replicated the whole procedure on humans. For the last twenty years, nonsurgical closure or device closure has bee n the normal. Adult life heart muscle cells do not proliferate, if there is damage or injuries happened to the heart, functional tissue try to form the non-functional scar tissue. In 1996, 98 Klug et al. Suggest that development of human Embryonic stem cell derived cardiomyocytes help for therapy of cardiac disease. There are some experiments done by using stem cells. Stem cells are the cell ability for self-renewal and the potential for differentiating into mature cell types. The embryonic stem cells can give rise to almost every mature cell type, while adult stem cells are classified as restricted to differentiation into only few types of mature cells. The mesenchymal stem cell can only differentiate to one specific mature cell type, are referred to as precursor cells. First clinical applications of stem cells for cardiac regeneration comprised cell transplantation trials. These trials were less successful than promising preclinical studies; these efforts initiated intense research activities providing new insight into the mechanisms of tissue growth and differentiation. Cardiac tissue engineering is focused on three different organ subunits: the myocardium, valves, and vessels. These three compounds of the heart can already be replaced by artificial or biological transplant constructs with th eir respective limitations, like assist devices, commercial heart valves, autologous coronary bypasses, etc. When developing the heart tissue must consider produced cardiomyocytes, vascular endothelial cell and the smooth muscles cell. Engineering these tissues must compete with the durability, efficiency and safety of existing substitutes and be affordable at the same time. Tissue engineering is the development of biological substitutes that restore, maintain, or improve tissue function or a whole organ, includes an in vitro. During designing of bioreactor, physiochemical environment maintain is very impotent, that will help to kept high quality of the stem cells and high degree of reproducibility of the cells. But must make sure cell culture has developed under sterile environment and sufficient nutrition and waste product exchange throughout the medium and clean and maintain the medium. After that, design some mechanical and hydrodynamic force to compression or expansion of the developing tissue, like shear stress to the tissue. Then maintain steady flow of media in pulsatile manner and reduce the excessive turbulence in the fluid flow rate. Other than that, must provide the low volume capacity for effective use for growth factors and medium, also select the fabricate material compatible with the heart tissue or stem cell. The bioreactor designing for heart tissue development must determine some specific design and functional requirement. Both biomechanical and biochemical factors affect the growth of t he cell therefore essential to create some control mechanism by stimulate the physiological environment for heart cell growth, like pulsatile forces, pressure, flow rate, compression, expansion, shear stress, frequency, stroke rate and stroke volume. Other than that, when creating heart tissue must consider cardiac flow rate and pressure. When consider the design the bioreactor, there are nutrition, oxygen, carbon dioxide, waste product, pH, temperature and humidity are main important biochemical controls affect the growth of the cell. There than the flow rate, volume, shear stress, pressure, resistance and compliance like biomechanical controls also involved in the cell growth. Therefore, specific bioreactors are need for the growth of the stem cell. Because inside the body, cells are always stimulated by mechanical, electrical and chemical signals, these influencing their behaviour. In fact, biological tissues adapt their structure and composition to surrounding specific and funct ional demands. By putting cells alone or only in contact with materials in culture medium is not enough to obtain a functional tissue. In vivo, the heart valves are subject to a unique combination of mechanical stimuli, including flexure, shear stress, and tension (Vesely and Boughner 1989). In growth of the embryonic stem cells require temperature, partial pressure of oxygen, partial pressure of carbon dioxide, pH, and shear force and biochemical conditions of their micro- and macro-environment. Then try to find homogeneous and constant conditions for micro- and macro-environment for the entire cells population. By uneven cell distribution, lack of nutrition and oxygen and insufficient extracellular matrix production cause some limitation to bioreactor scaffold in stem cell culture. Therefore, get rid of those must make to stem cell onto polymers, which will increase the mechanical strength of the heart tissue construction and develop subsequent tissue formation. To develop a bioreactor to provide cyclic flexural stimulation, to demonstrate the operation of the bioreactor and sterility maintenance and to evaluate the effects of unidirectional flexure on the effective stiffness of bioresorbable polymeric scaffolds which have been used extensively in the tissue engineering of the heart tissue. Therefore, must design the devices for closed controlled environment in which biological and/or biochemical processes are developed maintained pH, temperature, pressure, nutrient supply and waste removal, with high degree of reproducibility of the heart valve. Therefore, bioreactors are particularly crucial for the regeneration of complex 3D tissues. The bioreactor was designed using 3D software. The structural element of the device was machined from polysulfone; chosen for its excellent thermal and chemical stability; and abrasion-resistant acrylic; which provides good optical transparency. Culture medium was Dulbeccos Modified Eagles Medium with 4.5 g/L glucose and L-glutamine supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum. Antibiotics were excluded to assess the intrinsic ability of the bioreactor to maintain sterility. When developing scaffold use the degradable material and permanent materials as in artificial implants and in use of cells. Then preparing scaffold must test in vitro and in vivo how they hypotheses of scaffold and cell interaction, scaffold effect on tissue growth and 3D environment effect on stem cell differentiation. Scaffold materials consisted of a non-woven mesh of polyglycolic acid(PGA) fibers dip-coated with poly-4-hydroxybutyrate (P4HB), and a non- woven, 50:50 blend, mesh of PGA and poly-L-lactic acid (PLLA) fibers dip-coated with P4HB. The PGA and PGA/PLLa scaffold had an approximate fiber diameter of 0.012-0.015 mm and density of 69mg/ml. Rectangular scaffold sample were cut to size (approximately 257.5x2mm) and dipped briefly into a solution of P4HB in tetrahydrofuran (1% wt/vol), resulting in a P4HB coatin g following solvent evaporation. P4HB is a bioresorbable thermoplastic that allows for scaffold to be moulded into any shape. Scaffold were cold gas sterilized with ethylene oxide prior to use. The use of bioreactors, chambers which provide the flow of nutrient media for the development and culture of heart valves construct, to provide an environment which as closely as possible mimics the natural in vivo conditions. These bioreactors have been designed for pulsatile flow, driven by a pulsatile pump, which leads to the exertion of only a positive pressure. This is not the case in vivo, as during the cardiac cycle the positive pressure exerted by fluid force is slightly counterbalanced by a little vacuum. Stem cells grow in vitro under bioreactor conditions must provide the nutrient and they produced the nitrogen contain waste product, but they sensitive to the nitrogenated waste product. This will be varying with the tissue and that will change the shear stresses effecting on the tissue. The oxygen pressure is maintained at set constant value with calculated volume of solution added every time to the medium. Other way round maintained the carbon dioxide pressure at set cons tant value with calculated volume of waste product removed from the medium. Oxygen is most important nutrients for cells in all aerobic metabolic cycles. It is the limiting nutrient in successful tissue growth in vitro, sufficient amounts of oxygen to the surface of the cells mainly because of the poor solubility of oxygen in culture media. In that case hypo-oxygen or hyper-oxygen stresses will be concern the stem cell culture causes of programmed cell death or apoptosis. Therefore, adjust the stem cell for the anaerobic cell metabolism with low oxygen tension (40 mmHg) and low pH or for aerobic cell metabolism with higher oxygen tension (80mmHg) and high pH. Then living tissue is sensitive to pH changes in the medium, during maintain of the oxygen level must maintain the pH also. Other than that glucose and lactate are providing to cell metabolic process. Therefore, they act as the indicator for cells activity. In the bioreactor environment stem cell proliferates and increased the mass that leads the limitation of the final size of the tissue grow. Other than that, there are spaces to pass oxygen and nutrient throughout the scaffold otherwise this also leads to limitation of the tissue growth. Therefore, bioreactor must design to proper diffusion of oxygen and the nutrient and mass proliferation; cell will survive and proliferate within 150-200 µm distance. Shear stress will affect the tissue culture growth, most of the stem cell responds to it. They are proliferating according the orientation of the flow direction. In that case stem cell can aggregates by using higher shear stress that can be used for tissue function and viability. If design the rotating bioreactor that can decrease the shear stress and avoids the contact between the cells and the wall of the bioreactor, chamber must permanently rotate with one direction and control to forming uniformed growth of the tissue. But if design the non-rotating bioreactor then must create the specific mechanical stress applied on the cell culture, by perfusion solution can passed through the cell tissues by flow through the culture chamber. Some experiments were demonstrated that the shears stress 0.1 dyn/cm2 was ideal for stem cell to growth. If that exceeds the shears stress 1 dyn/cm2 were damaged the cells and the shears 0.01 dyn/cm2 were insufficient to promote the growth.   Bioreactors have developed functional heart tissue in vitro environment over specific biochemical and physical signals known to regulate cell differentiation, by improving the formation of the heart tissue by proving uniformed mixing pattern, transported the nutrient to enhance the cell growth and hydrodynamic or mechanical stimulation for stem cell to develop. Simple static flasks or a magnetically stirred flask is not suitable environment for 3-dimensional heart tissue scaffolds to develop. To develop the lowest possible homogeneous cell number for heart tissue, must grow the cell with uniform and efficient of porous scaffolds. When compare the cells seeding into mixed petri dishes yield with the static loading of the cell into the scaffolds has thicker constructs and more spatially uniformed distribution of cells. By seeding in rotating vessels or mixed flask must maintain a uniformed suspension of isolated cells and provide a relative velocity between cells and the scaffold durin g seeding. Dynamic seeding using mixed flasks will show to achieve seeding efficiencies approaching 100% but led to cell densities higher at the scaffold periphery. Therefore, when design bioreactor; must provide the scaffold perfusion with a cell suspension in alternate directions, which lead to the more homogenous seeding on a variety of scaffold with potential yield. Once the cells are associated with the scaffold, cell-polymer constructs can be cultured in bioreactors applying specific regimes of fluid flow. Selecting rotation wall vessels bioreactor The bioreactors are used for proliferation of cells on a small or large scale, to generate 3D tissue constructs, a certain process must occur. That case the cells are proliferated in a bioreactor to provide the quantity of cells needed. The cell loses their specialized characteristics during the process of proliferation is the problem. Therefore, microcarrier culture used for improves cell expansion significantly and that mixed the bioreactor system well. After the cell proliferation they must associate with enhanced heart tissue formation. In above process cells must receive proper nutrition and a stable environment. There for controlled the temperature, optimum pH, sufficient substrate, water, salts, vitamins, and oxygen. The Rotating-wall vessel culture is the best bioreactor for culturing constructs stained intensely, and homogeneously for scaffold for their cross-sectional area. Inside the bioreactor a dynamic flow generated by a rotating fluid environment is an alternative and efficient way to reduce diffusion limitations of nutrients and wastes. The rotation produced the low level of the shear stress to the cells, creating mechanical stimulation. Other than that, there are other mechanical forces that affect the cells during growth, like mechanical compression, hydrodynamic pressure, and fluid flow. They will affect the magnitude, frequency, and duty of the bioreactor cycle.   To control the free-falling state adjusted the rotation speed, it protects the fragile tissue by decreasing the shear stress and avoiding the contact between cells and the walls of the bioreactor. During 1990s NASA scientist did some research about the microgravity involved in to the cell tissue of the mammals. They used the closed tubular cylinder forms the systems cell culture chamber, which filled with a liquid medium where the cell grows on micron-size beads. The chamber has rotated along the horizontal axis; in that case they allowed the cell to develop in an environment like the free fall of microgravity. They supply oxygen and nutrition through a porous wall in the chamber, as same way they removed the waste product and the carbon dioxide. The rotating wall vessel bioreactor is providing the conditions of weightlessness for microbes by growing them inside of a slowly rotating liquid-filled chamber. The process of the rotation liquid has counteracted with slow sedimentation of the cell by creating a constant free fall of the cells through the culture medium. While rotation cell gets a slight sheer stress from liquid, lead to avoid the flattened on the bottom of the container. The scientist used the clear shell for allowed to check growth and cylindrical filter holds on the centre for supply the oxygen and nutrition and removed the carbon dioxide and waste products. And, they insure the fluid rotation without shear stress would leads to destroy the cells. They noticed rotation vessels did not cancelled the gravity, but that maintain the cells in continual free fall environment inside the shell.   Bioreactors for the application of physical forces to engineered cartilage tissues. In the rotating wall vessel system (A), the rotational speed is adjusted so that the drag force of the medium (Fd) is balanced by the centrifugal (Fc) and gravitational (Fg) forces. The constructs are thus maintained in a tumble-slide regime and the resulting dynamic laminar flow enhances the production and accumulation of cartilaginous extracellular matrix. Specific culture chambers (B) have been developed for the application of direct deformation to engineered constructs. Chambers include wells to allocate tissue constructs (I), a magnetic bar for medium stirring (II), an inlet/outlet port for medium change (III), a cover lid to maintain sterility (IV), and micrometer screws to accurately establish the contact position between the plungers and each specimen (V). The cell seeding is effects of shaking speed and initial cell concentration in suspension on cell culture medium, therefore cell seeding must do in efficiency. In that case initial seeding density and cell distribution within the scaffolds must understand. Initially cell concentration is low, in that time seeding efficiency and initial density will decreased with increasing shaking speed. But high initial cell concentration that will reverse the result. All the different cell concentration uniformity of the cell distribution decreased with increased shaking speed. But under the same shaking intensity were observed with on significant differences in uniformity between cells with different initial concentration. In vitro the tissue engineering of heart tissue structures is to develop combined cell seeding and perfusion system. Cell seeding is consisting of whole system, that incorporated into the perfusion system and air-driven respirator pump connected to the bioreactor. Therefore, ce ll culture medium is closed-loop system that will continuously circulate. Therefore, scientist developed a cell seeding device for static and dynamic seeding of vascular cells onto a polymeric vascular scaffold and a closed-loop perfuse bioreactor for long term vascular conditioning. By using cell seeding chamber can be easily connected to the bioreactor, which have combines continuous pulsatile perfusion and mechanical stimulation to the tissue -engineered conduct. In that scientist adjust the stroke volume, the stroke rate, and inspiration/ expiration time of the ventilator allow various pulstile flows and different levels of pressure. Discussion When selecting of the scaffold consider the biocompatibility, reproducibility, biodegradability, ability to be processed to complex shapes, ability to support cell growth and proliferation and mechanical properties of materials. Other than that, scaffolds must have similar electrical and functional activity with create systolic force. The limited availability of the incubator space; the place where the multiple bioreactors place, in this space multiple bioreactors must be places. Development of the stem cell is temperature depended process, any cells grow at body temperature in optimal level therefore temperature must maintain in that level as possible. The bioreactor design must set the temperature parameter to monitor the temperature. If inside temperature changes by increased or decreased then that must alarm on, then it can adjust manually. Sterility is very important throughout the development of the heart tissue. We used flask and glass vessels with threaded fitting, which is cheap and proved to maintain perfect sterility. To reduce the risk of contamination, make sure all connections before sterilisation and sterilize bottles with correction solutions connected to the vessel, by using either alcohol or stem. The tubing can be placed into the pump head easily after the sterilization. Because contamination of the medium lead to the growth of the heart tissue. Therefore, bioreactor must develop as a semi-closed system. Maintain the small cell culture medium all the time, easy replace the balance amount of the cell culture medium for requirement created by cell seeded as soon as possible. If require in addition to that easy seeding of the additional cells. Maintain the oxygen level in the medium is very essential; therefore, reassure the amount of the oxygen in the medium is enough for the development of the stem cells. When we maintain the pH level in the medium that passively adjust oxygen level in the medium, by enrich the medium with CO2 level up to 5%. The biocompatible substances must use when the designing process of the bioreactor, those substance will not kill the stem cell during the tissue growth. There are many analytic parameters, those must monitor regularly with some sensory methods to alarm if there are any changes occur in the media and correct it manually. Any design bioreactor can have ability to experiment several times with longer period. If there are any alternations, like chan ge the cell culture medium with ingredients needed or changer scaffold materials change those and can perform the process easily. By using roller pump can sucks the cell culture medium from the bioreactor, which leads to stress of the scaffold. This help to stem cell growth towards the heart tissue. This bioreactor must use inside the hospital, for treat each of the hole in the heart patient therefore this must produce low cost heart tissue for the patient. Other than that, there should be very low laboratory involvement and convince for patient and the surgeon. When using this kind of tissue engineering think some social highlight that affect the both quality and quantity of the life. Some religious background this technology is some bad for the life, ethical concern there are some extent to do those kinds of experiment. But medical point of view this is the good solution for treatment of the patient without suffering. In that case be careful of handling with stem cell and other, that will lead to caused critical threat to handler. Conclusions The developed bioreactor has set sterility at least week, with working tool for conducting experiments regarding heart tissue growth. The growth of the heart tissue helps to develop entire heart, which can helpful to many heart diseases. Nutrition concentration must keep in mind when performing the bioreactor process. When the time of the replacing the medium nutrition concentration must maintain, also try to minimize the number of time replacement the medium. Acknowledgment I would like to thank Professor Alicia El Haj, Dr. Nicholas R. Forsyth and Dr. Ying Yang for their support and guidance in completing this study. I would like to special thank Dr. Sun Tao for his support and guidance in completing this study.

The Methodological Role of the Concept :: Science Physics Research Papers

The Methodological Role of the Concept "Physical Vacuum" Science is entering the post-non-classical period characterized by evolutionary-synergistic types of rationality, the central moment of which is research of complex nonlinear systems. During the last few decades, physics has made a revolutionary turn toward new representations of the nature of elementary particles and has revealed unexpected features of the physical vacuum, with the evolving Universe having become the basic subject of study in physics. It is important to distinguish two basic aspects of the development of modern physics. First is that physics has closely approached the construction of unified theory. Second is that two branches of knowledge —physics of elementary particles and cosmology — have completely merged. This is most vividly displayed through the modern inflationary models of the evolution of the Universe, within the framework of which it is possible to solve most cosmological problems. The inflationary scenarios give a new look to the place of the physical vacuum in the structure of physics theory. This requires the methodological analysis of the problem of the physical vacuum and a definition of its status in the structure of nature science. I will therefore: 1) investigate the sociocultural origin of this fundamental concept by looking for the sources of the entry of the concept "vacuum" in the sciences; 2) study its functioning in the logic of scientific knowledge at the various stages of development in physics; and 3) develop more adequate definitions of this concept. The science is entering post non-classical period. This period is characterized with establishing evolutionary-synergetic type of rational. The central moment of which is research of complex nonlinear systems. The finest aspect of the appropriate consideration has the Universe as a self-organizing object. Cosmological aspect of formation of the new scientific research program, new paradigm in science, ontological formation of them in an adequate post-non-classical scientific picture of the world has the paramount meaning. It can be said that during the last two-three decades the physics has made a revolutionary turn on the way to the new representations of the nature of the elementary particles, and has revealed unexpected features of the physical vacuum. As a result that has determined evolving Universe as the basic subject of studying in physics. It is important to distinguish two basic aspects of development of modern physics. The first of them is, that the physics has closely app roached to the program of construction of the one theory of the field.

Mother Night, Welcome to the Monkey House, and Harrison Bergeron :: Mother Night Essays

Government vs. Individual in Mother Night, Welcome to the Monkey House, and Harrison Bergeron Kurt Vonnegut, Jr. has made important contributions to the development of the 20th century American novel. His influences are felt in modern social satire, as well as nontraditional science fiction. One theme that is recurrent in his work is the common portrayal of government forces as destructive to individuals; to force characters to do evil in the name of good. Kurt Vonegut, Jr. was born November 11, 1922 in Indianapolis, Indiana, the son of an architect. He attended Cornell University in 1940, studying biochemistry, but soon quit because his grades were poor. He worked as a columnist for the Cornell Daily Sun until joining the army in 1942. He was captured by the Germans in 1944 and forced to work in a factory, where he lived through the fire bombing of Dresden. This, and the suicide of his mother in 1944, were the two most influential events in his life. After the war he worked for the Chicago News Bureau and studied anthropology. He has written many novels and one short story collection. His most acclaimed work, Slaughterhouse-Five, is a twisted account of the Dresden bombing. He is still alive and writing. His most recent published work, Timequake, appeared in the December 1997 Playboy Magazine. Mother Night was Vonnegut's third novel and one his few works that contains no elements of science fiction. Though this novel is not one of his most critically acclaimed, it serves as a prime example of Vonnegut's skill as a black humorist and weaver of human absurdity. Mother Night is the story of Howard W. Campbell, Jr, Nazi radio propagandist and American spy. The novel begins and ends in the same spot; a "new jail in old Jerusalem" (Mother Night p. Mother Night, Welcome to the Monkey House, and Harrison Bergeron :: Mother Night Essays Government vs. Individual in Mother Night, Welcome to the Monkey House, and Harrison Bergeron Kurt Vonnegut, Jr. has made important contributions to the development of the 20th century American novel. His influences are felt in modern social satire, as well as nontraditional science fiction. One theme that is recurrent in his work is the common portrayal of government forces as destructive to individuals; to force characters to do evil in the name of good. Kurt Vonegut, Jr. was born November 11, 1922 in Indianapolis, Indiana, the son of an architect. He attended Cornell University in 1940, studying biochemistry, but soon quit because his grades were poor. He worked as a columnist for the Cornell Daily Sun until joining the army in 1942. He was captured by the Germans in 1944 and forced to work in a factory, where he lived through the fire bombing of Dresden. This, and the suicide of his mother in 1944, were the two most influential events in his life. After the war he worked for the Chicago News Bureau and studied anthropology. He has written many novels and one short story collection. His most acclaimed work, Slaughterhouse-Five, is a twisted account of the Dresden bombing. He is still alive and writing. His most recent published work, Timequake, appeared in the December 1997 Playboy Magazine. Mother Night was Vonnegut's third novel and one his few works that contains no elements of science fiction. Though this novel is not one of his most critically acclaimed, it serves as a prime example of Vonnegut's skill as a black humorist and weaver of human absurdity. Mother Night is the story of Howard W. Campbell, Jr, Nazi radio propagandist and American spy. The novel begins and ends in the same spot; a "new jail in old Jerusalem" (Mother Night p.

Conflict: Science against Religion Essay

Throughout the ages science and religion have struggled with one another. They both are constantly striving to gain the upper hand against the other. Within this struggle both are trying to assert the fact that their ideas are accurate and how the others ideas are inaccurate. Science yearns to answer the questions of how things happen through the means of solid facts. Religion, on the other hand, seeks to answer the question of why things occur and its thought process is grounded in faith. Some believe that the two views are not in turmoil with one another. This thought process is extremely skewed because these two belief systems contradict one another consistently and believers of each view then struggle to prove their perspective is correct. Science and religion, â€Å"do not have the same viewpoints about the nature of the world or agree about how truth is perceived or confined† (Neese, 2001). These two ideologies are at war with one another. The issues between the two cann ot be overlooked or brushed under the rug because there are too many opposing aspects. Because of this there is no way for these two ideologies to coexist harmoniously. When science and religion have overlapping topics that attempt to answer the same questions, conflict occurs between believers of each theory. A good example of this overlap is the Evolution theory. This theory has caused controversy from its beginnings in history. Evolution, as defined by Webster’s Dictionary, is â€Å"a theory that the various types of animals and plants have their origin in other preexisting types and that the distinguishable differences are due to modifications in successive generations† (Webster, 2012). The placement of this theory in high school text books has been very controversial. Multiple court cases have been fought over the theory of evolution and its existence within public schools’ curriculum. There are cases dating back from 1968 up until present day arguing about whether this theory should be taught to students (Masamura & Mead, 2001). According to religion, God made all things. This is known as creationism. Within the creationism theory there is no margin for compromise. God made man and there is no other explanation in accordance with the creationism theory. The Theory of Evolution contradicts everything that religion is based on. The Bible says that God created the animals but he also created man. The Bible speaks nothing of God creating animals and they evolving into mankind, so the idea that religious parties could agree with the evolutionary theory and accept it is ludicrous. Regardless of whether it is acknowledged or not, science is deeming what religion believes as a lie. There is no way to avoid the turmoil that it causes by attempting to prove that God didn’t make man but instead we evolved from animals. Debates regarding where mankind comes from seems to elevate tempers and leads to arguments. History shows us that people have not agreed upon these two opinions and it has led to judicial action b ecause there could not be an agreement made about the subjects. These are not issues of the past but are still currently raging throughout society even today. It is absurd to think that the theory of creationism and the theory of evolution do not cross over into one another and create conflict. How could two views that are polar opposites possibly be agreed upon? It is a simple answer; they can and will not be agreed upon. Another argument that rages between science and religion is the argument about the approximate age of the Earth. Science believes that the Earth is billions of years old; meanwhile, religious groups believe that the Earth is approximately 10,000 years old. Scientists believe that the earth can be dated back over 4 billion years using a method of Argon-Argon dating (Robins, 2006). On the other hand religious groups use the Bible as a reference to date the earth. Science argues that their method of dating is accurate and they have found fossils that are millions of year old; yet, religion argues that â€Å"The Great Flood† trapped carbon around the fossils and therefore would negate the carbon dating process that is typically used when dating fossils (Fossil, 2011). There are drastic differences between the timeline that science has created and the one religion uses. Science relies on gathering evidence that allows a conclusion to be made about the Earth’s age; meanwhile, religion relies upon the Bible and declares nothing can be questioned because the Bible is absolute. The argument regarding the age of the Earth is definitely a continuing issue. These two viewpoints have no common ground and will continue to conflict one another. The question of why someone is a homosexual has plagued debates for years. This argument is very emotional for a lot of people. Science and religion both have very opposing views of this topic. Some scientists believe that homosexuality is linked to genetics and have been trying to locate the gene that causes someone’s homosexuality (Abrams, 2007). Yet, religious sects believe that homosexuality is a choice. Science is trying to prove that people do not choose to be gay but instead are born with the predisposition to like someone of the same gender. In religious groups this view is widely rejected because the Bible states that homosexuality is wrong, and God would not make someone more prone to â€Å"sin†. The debate regarding the origins of why someone lives the homosexual lifestyle has not fully been pinpointed in science yet but this still doesn’t calm the argument with religious groups. The fight over giving homosexuals the right to legally marry in the U.S. gives us a good example of how heated this debate actually is and how far it is from being resolved. Several states have voted to allow gay marriage while the majority of states still have not latched on to the idea due to religious backgrounds within the communities. Not as widely discussed but still a conflicting issue for science and religion is the iss ue of death. The belief in the hereafter, or lack thereof, is strongly debated among scientists and religious groups. Science does not prove or disprove the existence of anything occurring after death. Some scientists argue that the phenomenon of an out of body experience is simply the result of the brain continuing to work even though the body does not (Fitzpatrick, 2010). This discredits people’s stories of experiencing the hereafter and coming back from it. Religion gives a greater purpose in life and the ultimate goal is to spend eternity in the heavenly realm. By some scientists disregarding the possibility of a hereafter it adds to the tension that already exists between religion and science. Since science leaves for the possibility that nothing exists after we die, it doesn’t support the theory that religion does. In not supporting the idea of something existing after we die, it creates an invisible wall between science and religion and leaves room for argumentative discussions. One of the most overlooked conflicts between science and religion is the separation of the languages. There are multiple theories about how language developed and changed according to s cience. Most scientists will agree that they believe evolution played a large part in the diversity of languages. Science bases the evolution of multiple languages on people slightly changing their current dialect as they migrated to different regions. Many scientists believe that the first language was developed somewhere in Africa (Wade, 2011). Religion seeks a completely different approach to the development of the separate languages. Religion bases the changing of dialects to the event that occurred at the tower of Babel, as recorded by the Bible. The Bible says that people were joining together to build a tower to reach to heaven. God was displeased with this act so he separated the languages so the people could no longer understand one another; thus, stopping their ability to work together to build the tower (Genesis 11, KJV). These two counter ideas both answer the question of how languages evolved but in two extremely different ways. In no way are these two theologies coexisting seei ng that there are no similarities between their theories. People argue about the existing conflict between religion and science. Some argue for the presence of a conflict, while others argue that turmoil simply does not exist between the two. A man by the name of Stephen Jay Gould â€Å"referred to the non-overlapping magisterial of science and religion, with the former describing reality – what is – and the latter dealing with values – how we ought to act† (Fish, 2010). Gould argued in his book, â€Å"Rock of Ages†, â€Å"that science and religion can coexist because they occupy two separate spheres of the human experience. According to Gould, science and God are inherently divided and thus can easily co-exist in the human belief system. Science, he argues, answers questions of fact, while religion covers questions of morality† (Clark, n.d.). Many people have the same viewpoint as Gould or a similar one. This argument suggests that these two ideologies run parallel to one another, therefore there is no possible way for them to conflict. By making this kind of claim it is saying that there is a limit to what science can investigate and theorize about. If science and religion do not overlap as Gould and many others suggest, then it would box these two ideologies in and limit their topics of discussion. In reality, this can never occur. You cannot limit the topics in which both science and religion have opinions about, because this would be the only way for these two to have no overlapping viewpoints. This argument defines science and religion as being two separate entities that do not cross over into one another. This is not reality however. Whether it be creation, sexual preference, death, or the separation of languages; all of these things have obviously been delved into by both science and religion. The argument that these two approaches of doctrine exist parallel is unrealistic. If that were the case then that would mean that no topic discussed by science or religion has ever or will ever be of the same subject. As everyone knows, throughout history science and religion have undoubtedly had discussions about the same subject ma tter; thus, negating the whole basis for Gould’s argument and others who believe as he does. If logic is used and we look at both of these ways of thinking we see the drastic difference in their opinions. This leads to a dialogue about who is right and who is wrong. There is no middle ground with these conflicting views. â€Å"Science is based on verifiable facts, whereas religion rests on faith that is not amendable to verification† (Dias, 2010). These two thought processes show no similarities; therefore, they do not have common ground and cannot agree. The desire for knowledge will always be prevalent in the human race. With this obtained knowledge comes theory and with theory comes disputes. Here stems the disagreements between science and religion. The never ending feud about whose viewpoint is right is raging as strong today as it has been in the past. The conflicts encountered within these two ideologies have no end in the foreseeable future. Their methodologies keep these two polar opposites continually disputing with one another. If there is a way for science and religion to harmoniously exist with one another, society has yet to find it. There are utopian ideas that attempt to reconcile science and religions altercations but no attempt at calming this argument has been successful thus far. Albert Einstein said that â€Å"science without religion is lame; religion without science is blind,† (Neese, 2001). His statement is rather idealistic and unfortunately we do not currently live in a world where this way of thinking is widespread. No matter how good it would be for these two groups to coexist, it will never happen due to their drastically different views. Maybe in time things will progress but as for now the two remain at war with one another. References Abrams, M. (2007). BORN GAY?. Discover, 28: 58-83. Retrieved Friday, August 10, 2012 from EBSCOhost database. Clark, Josh. (n.d.) Can God and Science Co-exist? Retrieved from http://science.howstuff works.com/science-vs-myth/everyday-myths/god-science-co-exist.htm. DIAS, P. (2010). Is Science Very Different from Religion? A Polanyian Perspective. Science & Christian Belief, 22(1), 43-55. â€Å"Evolution†. (2012). In Merriam-Webster.com. Retrieved August 28, 2012, from http://www. merriam-webster.com/dictionary/evolution. Fish, J. M. (2010). Science VS Religion DEBATE. Humanist,70(4), 27-31. Fitzpatrick,L. (2010). Is There Such a Things as Life After Death?. Time. Retrieved from http://www.Time.com. Fossil and Radiosiotope Dating. (2011). Retrieved August 28, 2012, from http://creationscience today.com/28-Carbon-14_Dating.html Helden, A.V. (1995). The Galileo Project. Retrieved from http://galileo.rice.edu/bio/narrative _7.html. Masamura,M. , Mead, L. (2001). Ten Major Court Cases About Evolution and Creationism. Retrieved from http://ncse.com/taking-action/ten-major-court-cases-evolution- Creationism. Neese, L. H. (2001). SCIENCE vs. RELIGION: The Challenge of Interpretation. USA Today Magazine, 130(2674), 70. Robins, M. (2006). How We Know Earth’s Age. Discover, 27(3), 22-23. Retrieved Friday, August 10, 2012 from EBSCOhost database. Wade, N. (2011). Phonetic Clues Hint Language is Africa – Born. New York Times, Retrieved from http://newyorktimes.com.